Unveiling the causes of the lack of Antinuclear movements in India during the Cold War
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22456/2178-8839.107249Keywords:
India, Social Movements, Nuclear Proliferation.Abstract
This essay aims to explain the lack of robust antinuclear movements in India during a period that ranges from the 1950s to the 1970s. Such movements arose throughout the world. During the 1960s, people rallied for this agenda in the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and even in New Zealand. India, on the other hand, tested a nuclear device in 1974, at the known Pokhran-I test (or “Smiling Buddha”), but did not face such grassroots uprisings. In this sense, this research design applied a deductive congruence analysis built on a bibliographical review. A case study on the Indian context tested previously elaborated the main hypotheses. It was inferred that this phenomenon was caused by four elements: (a) few possibilities to public participation; (b) scant available information on nuclear policy; (c) lack of a political schism between national elites and civil society on this topic; and at last (d) geopolitical dynamics.Downloads
References
ABRAHAM, Itty. How India became territorial: Foreign policy, diaspora, geopolitics. Stanford University Press, 2014.
ABRAHAM, Itty. Introduction: Nuclear power and atomic publics. In: ABRAHAM, Itty. (Ed.), South Astan Cultures of The Bomb Atomic Publics and the State in India and Pakistan,. Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2009.
ABRAHAM, Itty. The ambivalence of nuclear histories. Osiris, v. 21, n. 1, p. 49-65, jan 2006.
ALLISON, Graham. Essence of decision: Explaining the Cuban missile crisis. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971.
ARON, Raymond. The great debate: Theories of nuclear strategy. Garden City: Anchor Books; Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1965.
ASUELIME, Lucky E; ADEKOYE, Raquel A. Nuclear Proliferation in South Africa: History and Politics. Springer, 2016.
AYRES, Alyssa. Our time has come: How India is making its place in the world. Oxford University Press, 2017.
BENDFELDT, Lennart. Naxalism: The Maoist Challenge to the Indian State-Democracy & Conflict. Heinrich Böll Foundation. 2011.
BETTS, Richard K. Incentives for Nuclear Weapons: India, Pakistan, Iran. Asian Survey, v. 19, n.11, p. 1053-1072, 1979. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2643954
BURKETT, Jodi. Re-Defining British Morality:‘Britishness’ and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 1958–68. Twentieth Century British History, v. 21, n. 2, p. 184-205, 1 jun, 2010. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/tcbh/hwp057
CARPES, Mariana. When Words are not Enough: assessing the relationship between international commitments and the nuclear choices of Brazil, India and South Africa. Third World Quarterly, v. 34, n. 6, p. 1111-1126, 2013. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2013.802500
CLEMENTS, Kevin. Back from the brink: The creation of a nuclear-free New Zealand. Bridget Williams Books, 2015.
CORRELATES OF WAR. National Material Capabilities, 2020. Available at https://correlatesofwar.org/data-sets/national-material-capabilities. Accessed at 31 ago. 2020.
CORTRIGHT, David. Protest and politics: how peace movements shape history. The handbook of global security policy, p. 482-504, 2014. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118442975.ch27
DASH, Satya Prakash. Naxal movement and state power: with special reference of Orissa. Sarup & Sons, 2006.
DEUDNEY, Daniel. Hegemony, nuclear weapons, and liberal hegemony. In: IKENBERRY, G. John. Power, order, and change in world politics. Cambridge University Press, p. 195-232, 2014. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139680738.011
FREY, Karsten. Guardians of the Nuclear Myth: Politics, Ideology, and India’s Strategic Community. In: ITTY, Abraham (Eds). South Astan Cultures of The Bomb Atomic Publics and the State in India and Pakistan, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2009.
GABRIEL, João Paulo Nicolini. O lobby indo-americano no Congresso Americano e o Acordo Nuclear Civil de 2008. (Mestrado em Relações Internacionais). - Programa de Pós-Graduação em Relações Internacionais SanTiago Dantas, Universidade Estadual Paulista, São Paulo, 2019.
GADDIS, John Lewis. International relations theory and the end of the Cold War. International security, v. 17, n. 3, p. 5-58, 1992. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2539129
GADDIS, John Lewis. The Cold War: a new history. Penguin, 2006.
GANDHI, Indira. India’s Foreign Policy’. Foreign Affairs, v. 51, n. 65, p. 65-77, 1972.
GILADY, Lilach. The price of prestige: Conspicuous consumption in international relations.University of Chicago Press, 2018.
HARRIS, John. The Naxalite/Maoist movement in India: A review of recent literature. Institute or South Asian Studies, 2010.
HARVEY, Kyle. American anti-nuclear activism, 1975-1990: the challenge of peace. Springer, 2014.
HYMANS, Jacques EC. Theories of nuclear proliferation: The state of the field. Nonproliferation Review, v. 13, n. 3, p. 455-465, 2006. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700601071397
IKENBERRY, G. John. Liberal Leviathan: The origins, crisis, and transformation of the American world order. Princeton University Press, 2011.
INGLEHART, Ronald. The silent revolution: Changing values and political styles in advanced industrial society. 1977.
JERVIS, Robert. The meaning of the nuclear revolution: Statecraft and the prospect of Armageddon. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989.
JOSHI, Yogesh; O'DONNELL, Frank. India and nuclear Asia: forces, doctrine, and dangers. Georgetown University Press, 2018.
KAPUR, Ashok. The nuclear spread: A third world view. Third World Quarterly, v. 2, n. 1, p. 59-75, 1980. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436598008419478
KIRCHHOF, Astrid Mignon; MEYER, Jan-Henrik. Global protest against nuclear power. Transfer and transnational exchange in the 1970s and 1980s. Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung, p. 165-190, 2014.
KISSINGER, Henry. Diplomacia. Pinheiros: Saraiva Educação SA, 2017.
KISSINGER, Henry. Nuclear weapons and foreign policy. Routledge, 2019.
KRAFT, A; NEHRING, H; SACHSE, C. The Pugwash Conferences and the Global Cold War: Scientists, Transnational Networks, and the Complexity of Nuclear Histories. Journal of Cold War Studies, v. 20, n. 1, p. 4–30, 1 abr. 2018.
LARSON, D. W; SHEVCHENKO, A. Managing Rising Powers: The Role of Status Concerns. In: LARSON, D. W; PAUL, T. V.;
WOHLFORTH, W. C. (Eds). Status in World Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. p. 33–57. doi: https://doi.org/10.1162/jcws_e_00799
LIMA, Maria Regina Soares. The Political economy of brazilian foreign policy: nuclear energy, trade and Itaipu. Brasilia: Fundação Alexandre de Gusmão, 2013.
MALONE, David. Does the Elephant Dance? Contemporary Indian Foreign Policy – By David Malone. The Developing Economies, v. 50, n. 2, p. 198–201, 2011.
MARTIN, Susan B. The continuing value of nuclear weapons: a structural realist analysis. Contemporary Security Policy, v. 34, n. 1, p. 174-194, 2013. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2013.771042
MARWICK, Arthur. The sixties: cultural revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United States, c. 1958-c. 1974. A&C Black, 2011.
MEARSHEIMER, John J. Nuclear weapons and deterrence in Europe. International Security, v. 9, n. 3, p. 19-46, 1984. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2538586
MEARSHEIMER, John J. The tragedy of great power politics. WW Norton & Company, 2001.
MEYER, David S. How the Cold War was really won: The effects of the antinuclear movements of the 1980s. How social movements matter, p. 182-203, 1999.
MEYER, David S. Peace protest and policy: explaining the rise and decline of antinuclear movements in postwar America. Policy Studies Journal, v. 21, n. 1, p. 35-51, 1993. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.1993.tb01452.x
MORGENTHAU, Hans J. A política entre as nações: a luta pela guerra e pela paz. Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília/Instituto de Pesquisa de Relações Internacionais, 2003.
NEHRING, Holger. Peace Movements. In: BERGER, Stefan;
NEHRING, Holger (Eds). The History of Social Movements in Global Perspective: A Survey. Springer, p. 485-513, 2017.
NEHRING, Holger. Peace Movements and Internationalism. Moving the Social, v. 55, p. 93-112, 2016. doi: 10.13154/mts.56.2016.93-112
NEHRING, Holger. Politics of Security: British and West German Protest Movements and the Early Cold War 1945-1970. Oxford University Press, 2013. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199681228.001.0001
PANT, Harsh V. The US–India nuclear pact: Policy, process, and great power politics. Oxford University Press, 2011.
PANT, Harsh V; JOSHI, Y. The US pivot and Indian foreign policy: Asia's evolving balance of power. Springer, 2016.
PAUL, Thazha Varkey et al. Power versus prudence: Why nations forgo nuclear weapons. McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2000.
PAUL, Thazha Varkey; SHANKAR, Manesh. Status accommodation through institutional means: India’s rise and the global order. In: PAUL, Thazha V.; LARSON, Deborah Welch;
WOHLFORTH, William C. (Ed.). Status in world politics.
Cambridge University Press, p. 165-191, 2014.
PATTI, Carlo. The forbidden cooperation: South Africa–Brazil nuclear relations at the turn of the 1970s. Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional, v. 61, n. 2, 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7329201800206
PERKOVICH, George. India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation. University of California Press, 2001.
ROCHON, Thomas R. Mobilizing for peace: the antinuclear movements in Western Europe. Princeton University Press, 2014.
SCHEINMAN, Lawrence. The International Atomic Energy Agency and World nuclear order. International Affairs, v. 65, n. 3, p. 524–525, 1 jul. 1989. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467688008004155
SINGH, Jaswant. Against nuclear apartheid. Foreign affairs, p. 41-52, 1998.
SINGH, Swaran. Power and Diplomacy: India’s Foreign Policies During the Cold War. Oxford University Press, 2019.
STUENKEL, Oliver. Identidade, status e instituições internacionais: o caso do Brasil, da Índia e do tratado de não proliferação. Contexto Internacional, v. 32, n. 2, p. 519-561, 2010. doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-85292010000200008.
SURI, Jeremi. Power and protest: global revolution and the rise of détente. Harvard University Press, Oxford University, 2009.
TANNENWALD, Nina. Stigmatizing the bomb: Origins of the nuclear taboo. International Security, v. 29, n. 4, p. 5-49, 2005.
TANNENWALD, Nina. The nuclear taboo: The United States and the normative basis of nuclear non-use. International organization, v. 53, n. 3, p. 433-468, 1999.
TARROW, Sidney. National politics and collective action: Recent theory and research in Western Europe and the United States. Annual Review of Sociology, v. 14, n. 1, p. 421-440, 1988. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.14.080188.002225
TILLY, Charles. Social Movements, 1768-2008. Routledge, 2020.
TRUMAN, David B. The Governmental Process. New York: Knopf, 1951.
V-DEM. Civil Core Civil Society. Varieties of Democracy, 2020a. Available at https://www.v-dem.net/en/analysis/VariableGraph/ Acessed in 12 jun. 2020.
V-DEM. Society participation index. Varieties of Democracy, 2020b. Available at https://www.v-dem.net/en/analysis/VariableGraph/ Acessed in 12 jun. 2020.
WALTZ, Kenneth N. Theory of international politics. Waveland Press, 1979.
WALTZ, Kenneth N. The spread of nuclear weapons: More may be better: Introduction. 1981.
WENDT, Alexander. Social theory of international politics. Cambridge University Press, 1999.
WITTNER, Lawrence S. Confronting the bomb: A short history of the world nuclear disarmament movement. Stanford University Press, 2009.
WITTNER, Lawrence S. The Nuclear Threat Ignored: How and Why the Campaign Against the Bomb Disintegrated in the Late 1960s. In: FINK, C.; GASSERT, P.; JUNKER, D. (Eds). 1968: The World Transformed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
WORLD BANK. World Bank Open Data: Poverty. Available at https://data.worldbank.org/. Accessed at 4 jul. 2020. 2020.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
a. Authors retain the copyright and grant the journal the right to first publication, with the work simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, which allows its use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, as well as its transformation and creations from it, as long as the original author and source are credited. Also, the material cannot be used for commercial purposes, and if it is transformed, or used as a basis for other creations, these must be distributed under the same license as the original.
b. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
c. Authors are allowed to deposit, in the repositories accepted by Conjuntura Austral, the preprint version of the manuscripts submitted to the journal prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access)
d. Authors are permitted and encouraged to publish and distribute online (in institutional and /or thematic repositories, on their personal pages, etc.) the postprint version of the manuscripts (accepted and published), without an embargo period.
e. Conjuntura Austral: Journal of the Global South, imbued with the spirit of ensuring the protection of regional academic and scientific production in Open Access, is a signatory to the Mexico Declaration on the use of the Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license to guarantee the protection of academic and scientific production in open access.
Accepted 2020-12-01
Published 2021-01-30
