Cannabis sativa: A systematic review of plant analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22456/2527-2616.73676Keywords:
Cannabis sativa, marijuana, cannabinoids detection, plant analysis and analytical methodsAbstract
Cannabis has been the most widely used illicit drug worldwide throughout many years. Reports from different countries indicate that the potency of cannabis preparation has been increasing, as well as the ratio of tetrahydrocannabinol/cannabidiol has been changing. The high consumption along with the changing chemical profile of the drug has led increasingly to the interest in researching the cannabis plant. This article reviews available literature on the analytical methods currently used for the detection and quantification of cannabinoids in cannabis plant. The papers were screened by two researchers independently and following a pre-specified protocol. The systematic review of the literature allowed to include 42 citations on cannabis plant analysis. The analytical methods for cannabis material published in the included articles of this systematic review showed a lack of relevant information of the development of methods on GC and LC analysis and the limits of detection and quantification of mass detectors.
Downloads
References
UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2016) World Drug Report 2016. http://www.UNODC.org/doc/wdr2016/WORLD_D RUG_REPORT_2016_w eb.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2016).
WHO - World Health Organization (2016). The health and social effects of nonmedical cannabis use. http://www.WHO.int/substance_abusepublications/ ms bcannabis.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2016).
Bruci, Z., Papoutsis, I., Athanaselis, S., Nikolaou, P., Pazari, E., Spiliopoulou, C., Vyshka, G. (2012) First systematic evaluation of the potency of Cannabis sativa plants grown in Albania, Forensic Science International, 222, 40–46.
Swift, W., Wong, A., Li, K.M., Arnold, J.C., McGregor, I.S. (2013) Analysis of Cannabis Seizures in NSW, Australia: Cannabis Potency and Cannabinoid Profile, PLoS ONE, 8, 1–9.
Aizpurua-Olaizola, O., Soydaner, U., Öztürk, E., Schibano, D., Simsir, Y., Navarro, P., Etxebarria, N., Usobiaga, A. (2016) Evolution of the Cannabinoid and Terpene Content during the Growth of Cannabis sativa Plants from Different Chemotypes, Journal of Natural Products, 79, 324– 331.
De Backer, B., Maebe, K., Verstraete, A.G., Charlier, C. (2012) Evolution of the Content of THC and Other Major Cannabinoids in Drug-Type Cannabis Cuttings and Seedlings During Growth of Plants, Forensic Science International, 57, 918–922.
Broséus, J., Anglada, F., Esseiva, P. (2010). The differentiation of fibre- and drug type Cannabis seedlings by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and chemometric tools, Forensic Science International, 200, 87–92.
Mariotti, K.C., Marcelo, M.C.A., Ortiz, R.S., Borille, B.T., Reis, M., Fett, M.S., Ferrão, M.F., Limberger, R.P. (2016) Seized cannabis seeds cultivated in greenhouse: A chemical study by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and chemometric analysis, Science & Justice, 56, 35–41.
UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2009) Recommended methods for the identification and analysis of cannabis and cannabis products. https://www.UNODC.org/documents/scientific/STNAR-40-Ebook.pdf (accessed on 04 September 2016).
Trofin, I. G., Vlad, C.C., Noja, V.V., Dabija, G. (2012) Identification and Characterization of Special Types of Herbal Cannabis, UPB Scientific Bulletin, 74, 119–130.
Taschwer, M., Schmid, M.G. (2015) Determination of the relative percentage distribution of THCA and Δ9-THC in herbal cannabis seized in Austria - Impact of different storage temperatures on stability, Forensic Science International, 254, 167–171.
Cadola, L., Broséus, J., Esseiva, P. (2013) Chemical profiling of different hashish seizures by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and statistical methodology: A case report, Forensic Science International, 232, 24–27.
Pandohee, J., Holland, B.J., Li, B., Tsuzuki, T., Stevenson, P.G., Barnett, N.W., Pearson, J.R., Jones, O.A.H., Conlan, X.A. (2015) Screening of cannabinoids in industrial-grade hemp using twodimensional liquid chromatography coupled with acid potassium permanganate chemiluminescence detection, Journal of Separation Science, 38, 2024– 2032.
Ambach, L., Penitschka, F., Broillet, A., König, S., Weinmann, W., Bernhard, W. (2014) Simultaneous quantification of delta-9-THC, THC-acid A, CBN and CBD in seized drugs using HPLC-DAD, Forensic Science International, 243, 107–111.
Rotherham, D., Harbison, S.A. (2011) Differentiation of drug and non-drug Cannabis using a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assay, Forensic Science International, 207, 193–197.
Cascini, F., Passerotti, S., Martello, S. (2012) A real-time PCR assay for the relative quantification of the tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) synthase gene in herbal Cannabis samples, Forensic Science International, 217, 134–138.
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D.G., Group, P. (2010) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement, International Journal of Surgery, 8, 336– 341.
Small, E., Cronquist, A. (1976) A Practical and Natural Taxonomy for Cannabis, Taxon, 25, 405– 435.
Small, E. (2016) Evolution and Classification of Cannabis sativa (Marijuana, Hemp) in Relation to Human Utilization, Botanical Review, 81, 189–294.
Sawler, J., Stout, J.M., Gardner, K.M.., Hudson, D., Vidmar, J., Butler, L., Page, J.E., Myles, S. (2015) The Genetic Structure of Marijuana and Hemp, PLoS ONE, 10, 1–9.
Amaducci, S., Scordia, D., Liu, F.H., Zhang, Q., Guo, H., Testa, G., Cosentino, S.L. (2015) Key cultivation techniques for hemp in Europe and China, Industrial Crops and Products, 68, 2–16.
Gloss, D. (2015) An Overview of Products and Bias in Research, Neurotherapeutics, 12, 731–734.
Salentijn, E.M.J., Zhang, Q., Amaducci, S., Yang, M., Trindade, L.M. (2015) New developments in fiber hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) breeding, Industrial Crops and Products, 68, 32–41.
Elsohly, M.A., Slade, D. (2005) Chemical constituents of marijuana: The complex mixture of natural cannabinoids, Life Sciences, 78, 539–548.
Radwan, M.M., ElSohly, M.A., El-Alfy, A.T., Ahmed, S.A., Slade, D., Husni, A.S., Manly, S.P., Wilson L., Seale S., Cutler, S.J., Ross, S.A. (2015) Isolation and Pharmacological Evaluation of Minor Cannabinoids from High-Potency Cannabis sativa, Journal of Natural Products, 78, 1271–1276.
Russo, E.B. (2011) Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects, British Journal of Pharmacology, 163, 1344–1364.
Small, E., Naraine, S.G.U. (2016) Size matters: evolution of large drug-secreting resin glands in elite pharmaceutical strains of Cannabis sativa (marijuana), Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 63, 349–359.
Onofri, C., De Meijer, E.P.M., Mandolino, G. (2015) Sequence heterogeneity of cannabidiolicand tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-synthase in Cannabis sativa L. and its relationship with chemical phenotype, Phytochemistry, 116, 57–68.
Rogeberg, O., Elvik, R. (2016). The effects of cannabis intoxication on motor vehicle collision revisited and revised. Addiction, 111, 1348–1359.
Evans, D.G. (2013). The Economic Impacts Of Marijuana Legalization, The Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice, 1–39.
ElSohly, M.A., Mehmedic, Z., Foster, S. Gon, C., Chandra, S., Church, J.C. (2016) Changes in cannabis potency over the last two decades (1995- 2014) - Analysis of current data in the United States. Biological Psychiatry, 79, 613–619.
Crippa, J.A., Lacerda, L.T.A., Amaro, E., Busatto Filho, G., Zuardi, A.W., Bressan, R.A. (2005) Efeitos cerebrais da maconha: resultados dos estudos de neuroimagem. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 27, 70–78.
Freeman, T.P., Winstock, A.R. (2015) Examining the profile of high-potency cannabis and its associatiion with severety of cannabis dependence, Psychological Medicine, 45, 3181–3189.
Di Forti, M., Marconi, A., Carra, E., Fraletta, S., Trotta, A., Bonomo, M., Murray, R.M. (2015) Proportion of patients in soth London with first episode psychosis attributable to use of highpotency cannabis: a case control study, The Lancet Psychiatry, 2, 233–238.
Hall, W. (2015) What has research ove the past two decadesrevelated about the adverse health effects of recreational cannabis use?, Addiction, 110, 19–35.
Tipparat, P., Kunkaew, W., Julsrigival, S., Pinmanee, S., Natakankitkul, S. (2014) Classification of Cannabis Plants Grown in Northern Thailand using Physico-Chemical Properties, Journal of Natural Sciences Research, 4, 46–54.
Vanhove, W., Van Damme, P., Meert, N. (2011) Factors determining yield and quality of illicit indoor cannabis (Cannabis spp.) production, Forensic Science International, 212, 158–163.
Mander, L., Liu, H-W., (2010) Comprehensive Natural Products II: Chemistry and Biology, Volume 1, 1st Edition, Elsevier Science.
Ahmad, U.K., Muniandy, Y., Hassan, M.S. (2014) Physical Analysis and Chemical Profiling of Illicit Herbal Cannabis using Multivariate Analysis, Malaysian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 5, 26–34.
Giese, M.W., Lewis, M.A., Giese, L., Smith, K.M. (2015) Development and Validation of a Reliable and Robust Method for the Analysis of Cannabinoids and Terpenes in Cannabis, Drug Formulations and Clinical Methods, 98, 1503–1522.
Hoffmann, E., Stroobant, V. (2007) Mass Spectrometry: Principles and Applications, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc, London.
Nikolaev, E.N., Kostyukevich, Y.I., Vladimirov, G.N. (2016) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (ft icr) mass spectrometry: theory and simulations, Mass Spectrometry Reviews, 35, 219– 259.
Chandra, S., Lata, H., Mehmedic, Z., Khan, I.A., ElSohly, M.A. (2010) Assessment of Cannabinoids Content in Micropropa- gated Plants of Cannabis sativa and Their Comparison with Conventionally Propagated Plants and Mother Plant during Developmental Stages of Growth, Planta Medica, 76, 743–750.
Fischedick, J.T., Hazekamp, A., Erkelens, T., Choi, Y.H., Verpoorte, R. (2010) Metabolic fingerprinting of Cannabis sativa L., cannabinoids and terpenoids for chemotaxonomic and drug standardization purposes, Phytochemistry, 78, 2058–2073.
Knight, G., Hansen, S., Connor, M., Poulsen, H., McGovern, C., Stacey, J. (2010) The results of an experimental indoor hydroponic Cannabis growing study, using the ‘Screen of Green’ (ScrOG) method—Yield, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and DNA analysis, Forensic Science International, 202, 36–44.
Lata, H., Chandra, S., Khan, I.A., ElSohly, M.A. (2010) High Frequency Plant Regeneration from Leaf Derived Callus of High Δ9- Tetrahydrocannabinol Yielding Cannabis sativa L., Planta Medica, 76, 1629–1633.
Mehmedic, Z., Chandra, S., Slade, D., Denham, H., Foster, S., Patel, A.S., Ross, S.A., Khan, I.A., ElSohly, M.A. (2010) Potency Trends of Δ 9 -THC and Other Cannabinoids in Confiscated Cannabis Preparations from 1993 to 2008*, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 55, 1209–1217.
Hazekamp, A., Fischedick, J.T. (2012) Cannabis - from cultivar to chemovar, Drug Testing and Analysis, 4, 660–667.
Lata, H., Chandra, S., Techen, N., Khan, I.A., ElSohly, M.A. (2011) Molecular analysis of genetic fidelity in Cannabis sativa L. plants grown from synthetic (encapsulated) seeds following in vitro storage, Biotechnology Letters, 33, 2503–2508.
Tipparat, P., Natakankitkul, S., Chamnivikaipong, P., Chutiwat, S. (2012) Characteristics of cannabinoids composition of Cannabis plants grown in Northern Thailand and its forensic application, Forensic Science International, 215, 164–170.
Happyana, N., Agnolet, S., Muntendam, R., Van Dam, A., Schneider, B., Kayser, O. (2013) Analysis of cannabinoids in laser-microdissected trichomes of medicinal Cannabis sativa using LCMS and cryogenic NMR, Phytochemistry, 87, 51–59.
Ameur, S., Haddou, B., Derriche, Z., Canselier, J.P., Gourdon, C. (2013) Cloud point extraction of Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol from cannabis resin, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 405, 3117– 3123.
Aizpurua-Olaizola, O., Omar, J., Navarro, P., Olivares, M., Etxebarria, N., Usobiaga, A. (2014) Identification and quantification of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. plants by high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 406, 7549– 7560.
Peschel, W., Politi, M. (2015) 1H NMR and HPLC/DAD for Cannabis sativa L. chemotype distinction, extract profiling and specification, Talanta, 140, 150–165.
Deimler, R.E., Razunguzwa, T.T., Reschke, B.R., Walsh, C.M., Powell M.J., Jackson, G.P. (2014) Direct analysis of drugs in forensic applications using laser ablation electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LAESI-MS/MS), Analytical Methods, 6, 4810–4817.
Eiras, M.M., De Oliveira, D.N., Ferreira, M.S., Benassi, M., Cazenave, S.O.S., Catharino, R.R. (2014) Fast fingerprinting of cannabinoid markers by laser desorption ionization using silica plate extraction, Analytical Methods, 6, 1350–1352.
Nascimento, I.R., Costa, H.B., Souza, L.M., Soprani, L.C., Merlo, B.B., Romão, W. (2015) Chemical identification of cannabinoids in street marijuana samples using electrospray ionization FTICR mass spectrometry, Analytical Methods, 7, 1415–1424.
Srivastava, A., VK, Y. (2013) Microscopical and Chemical Study of Cannabis sativa, Forensic Research, 5, 1–6.
Balbino, M.A., De Oliveira, L.S., Eleoterio, I.C., Oiye, E.N., Ribeiro, M.F.M., McCord, B.R., Ipolito, A.J., De Oliveira, M.F. (2016) The Application of Voltammetric Analysis of Δ 9 -THC for the Reduction of False Positive Results in the Analysis of Suspected Marijuana Plant Matter, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 1–7.
Tanaka, H. (2011) Immunochemical Approach Using Monoclonal Antibody against Δ 9 - Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid (THCA) to Discern Cannabis Plants and to Investigate New Drug Candidates, Current Drug Discovery Technologies, 8, 3–15.
Lata, H., Chandra, S., Techen, N. Khan, I.A., ElSohly, M.A. (2010) Assessment of the Genetic Stability of Micropropagated Plants of Cannabis sativa by ISSR Markers, Planta Medica, 76, 97– 100.
Allgeier, L., Hemenway, J., Shirley, N., LaNier, T., Coyle, H.M. (2011) Field Testing of Collection Cards for Cannabis sativa Samples With a Single Hexanucleotide DNA Marker, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 56, 1245–1249.
Sutipatanasomboon, A., Panvisavas, N. (2011) Discrimination of ‘fiber-type’ and ‘drug-type’ Cannabis sativa L.by fluorescent duplex PCR, Forensic Science International: Genetics Supplement Series 3, e522–e523.
Downloads
Published
Versions
- 10-03-2026 (4)
- 07-03-2026 (3)
- 28-08-2017 (2)
- 28-08-2017 (1)
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2017 Drug Analytical Research
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The Copyright holder of manuscripts published is Drug Analytical Research. Authors who publish with this journal are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Licensing:
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License
Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author.
