Salmonella spp. in Horses with Diarrhea
Clinical, Laboratory and Microbiological Aspects
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.149331Keywords:
equines, diarrhea, nosocomial infection, antimicrobial susceptibility, sepsis, colitisAbstract
Background: Salmonellosis is an important cause of diarrhea in horses with zoonotic implications. Diagnosis depends on the isolation of the agent through serial cultures or molecular techniques. The aim of this retrospective study was to describe the clinical, laboratory, and microbiological aspects of salmonellosis in horses presenting diarrhea referred to a veterinary teaching hospital.
Materials, Methods & Results: Horses presenting signs of diarrhea treated between January 2009 and December 2019, from which Salmonella spp. were isolated from feces, were included in this study. Epidemiological data, clinical and laboratory findings (hematology, serum biochemistry, and blood gas analysis), and in vitro antimicrobial resistance profiles were analyzed. During this period, 78 of the admitted horses presented diarrhea, and Salmonella spp. were isolated from 28% (22/78) of them. Among these patients, 41% (9/22) were younger than 3 months, 27% (6/22) were between 6 and 12 months, 14% (3/22) were between 2 and 7 years, and 18% (4/22) were older than 9 years. Clinical signs included tachycardia, tachypnea, mucous membrane congestion and liquid feces. Clinicopathological tests revealed hyperfibrinogenemia, increased gamma-glutamyl transferase serum activity and metabolic acidosis. In addition to feces, Salmonella spp. were isolated from 10% (2/22) and 5% (1/22) of lung and intestinal tissues and blood, respectively, from horses that did not survive. The isolates were resistant to sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (4/20; 20%) and gentamicin (3/20; 15%), along with partially resistant strains (5/20; 25%) and strains resistant (2/20; 10%) to ceftiofur. The mortality rate in the study population was 59%.
Discussion: The study highlights the severe impact of equine salmonellosis, particularly in cases complicated by septic shock, which contributed to a high mortality rate and limited the assessment of hospitalization duration and prognosis. The confirmed etiology of diarrhea was based on the isolation of Salmonella spp. through fecal, tissue, and blood cultures, with systemic dissemination evident in some cases. Serial fecal culture remains the diagnostic gold standard, although a single positive sample can suffice in horses with gastrointestinal symptoms. The antimicrobial resistance profile revealed significant resistance to sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, gentamicin, and ceftiofur. Notably, some isolates were partially sensitive (25%) or resistant (10%) to ceftiofur, reflecting concerns about the future efficacy of cephalosporins due to their widespread use in veterinary medicine. However, the absence of multidrug-resistant strains in this study contrasts with findings from other species and age groups, suggesting that antimicrobial use practices and regulatory differences may influence resistance patterns. Necropsy findings were consistent with equine salmonellosis and bacterial enterocolitis, indicating loss of intestinal barrier integrity, bacterial dissemination, and sepsis development. These findings underline the importance of early diagnosis, effective antimicrobial stewardship, and a better understanding of resistance mechanisms to improve outcomes in equine salmonellosis cases. This study confirms that salmonellosis is a prevalent cause of enterocolitis in horses and is responsible for a high mortality rate. We emphasize the importance of evaluating the antimicrobial susceptibility profile in all cases.
Keywords: equines, diarrhea, nosocomial infection, antimicrobial susceptibility, sepsis, colitis.
Downloads
References
1 Aceto H., Miller S.A. & Smith G. 2011. Onset of diarrhea and pyrexia and time to detection of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica in feces in experimental studies of cattle, horses, goats, and sheep after infection per os. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 5(238): 1333-1339. DOI: 10.2460/javma.238.10.1333 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.238.10.1333
2 Braga P.C.R., Basso R.M., Martins L.S.A., Ribeiro M.G., Amarante A.F., Casas M.R.T., Nassar A.F.C., Pereira J.G., Pantoja J.C.F., Cerri F.M., Possebon F.S., Oliveira-Filho J.P. & Borges A.S. 2023. Occurrence of Salmonella spp. in fecal samples from foals with and without diarrhea in the state of São Paulo: microbiological diagnosis, antimicrobial susceptibility profile, and molecular detection. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira. 43(1): 1-12. DOI: 10.1590/1678-5150-PVB-7194 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-7194
3 Braga P.R.C., Dos Santos C.A., Bertani A.M.J., Vieira T., Amarante A.F., Reis A.D., Sacchi C.T., Camargo C.H., Ribeiro M.G., Borges A.S. & Tiba-Casas M.R. 2023. Detection and genomic characterization of a multidrug-resistant Salmonella newport coharbouring blaCMY-2, qnrB19 and mcr-9 from the diarrheic feces of a foal. Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance. 5(35): 198-201. DOI:10.1016/j.jgar.2023.09.01 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgar.2023.09.019
4 Brewer B.D. & Koterba A.M. 1998. Development of a scoring system for the early diagnosis of equine neonatal sepsis. Equine Veterinary Journal. 20: 18-22. DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1988.tb01445.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1988.tb01445.x
5 Burgess B.A. & Morley P.S. 2018. Risk factors for veterinary hospital environmental contamination with Salmonella enterica. Epidemiology and Infection. 146(10): 1282-1292. DOI:10.1017%2FS0950268818001164 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268818001164
6 Burgess B.A. 2023. Salmonella in horses. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice. 39(1): 25-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2022.11.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2022.11.005
7 Cerri F.C., Oliveira J.P.M., Broomberg C.R., Lisbôa J.A.N., Amorim R.M., Oliveira Filho J.P. & Borges A.S. 2022. Eletroneutralidade e gamblegram no equilíbrio ácido-base em grandes animais. Revista CFMV. 90(28): 43-54.
8 Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute-CLSI. 2024. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk and Dilution Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria Isolated from Animals. Wayne. 34th edn. Wayne (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute). 416p.
9 Corley K.T.T. & Furr M.O. 2003. Evaluation of a score designed to predict sepsis in foals. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care.13:149-155. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1435-6935.2003.00098.x
10 Cummings K.J., Perkins G.A., Khatibzadeh S.M., Warnick L.D., Aprea V.A. & Altier C. 2016. Antimicrobial resistance trends among Salmonella isolates obtained from horses in the northeastern United States (2001-2013). American Journal of Veterinary Research 77(6): 505-513. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.77.5.505. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.77.5.505
11 Duijkeren E.V., Wannet W.J.B., Heck M.O.E., Pelt W.V., Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan M.M.S.V., Smit J.A.H. & Howers D.J. 2002. Serotypes, phage types, and antibiotic susceptibilities of Salmonella strains isolated from horses in The Netherlands from 1993 to 2000. Veterinary Microbiology. 86: 203-212. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-1135(02)00007-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(02)00007-X
12 Feary D.J. & Hassel D.M. 2006. Enteritis and Colitis in Horses. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice. 22: 437-479. DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2006.03.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2006.03.008
13 Freeman K.P., Farr A.J. & Barrelet A. 2010. Hematology of Equids. In: Weiss D.J. & Wardrop K.J. (Eds). Schalm’s Veterinary Hematology. 6th edn. Ames: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, pp.993-1003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119500537.ch110
14 García-Díez J., Moura M., Cenci-Goga B., Saraiva S., Silva F., Saraiva C. & Ausina J. 2024. Salmonella spp. in domestic ruminants, evaluation of antimicrobial resistance based on the One Health approach—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Veterinary Science. 11(7): 315. DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11070315 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11070315
15 Giordano A., Rossi G., Pieralisi C. & Paltrinieri S. 2008. Evaluation of equine hemograms using the ADVIA 120 as compared with an impedance counter and manual differential count. Veterinary Clinical Pathology. 37(1): 21-30. DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-165X.2008.00012.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-165X.2008.00012.x
16 Gomez D.E., Arroyo L.G., Schoster A., Renaud D.L., Kopper J.J., Dunkel B., Byrne D. & Toribio R.E. 2023. Diagnostic approaches, etiological agents, and their associations with short-term survival and laminitis in horses with acute diarrhea admitted to referral institutions. Equine Veterinary Journal. 1: 1-1. DOI: 10.1111/evj.14024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.14024
17 Gomez D.E., Arroyo L.G., Stampfli H.R., Cruz L.E. & Oliver O.J. 2013. Physicochemical interpretation of acid-base abnormalities in 54 adult horses with acute severe colitis and diarrhea. Journal Veterinary Internal Medicine. 27(3): 548-553. DOI: 10.1111/jvim.12071
18 Gomez D.E., Leclere M., Arroyo L.G., Li L., John E.M., Afonso T., Payette F. & Darbym S. 2022. Acute diarrhea in horses: A multicenter Canadian retrospective study (2015 to 2019). Canadian Veterinary Journal. 63(10): 1033-1042. DOI: 10.1111/jvim.12071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.12071
19 Gori E., Pierini A., Lippi I., Lubas G. & Marchetti V. 2021. Leukocytes ratios in feline systemic inflammatory response syndrome and sepsis: a retrospective analysis of 209 cases. Animals. 11: 1-9. DOI: 10.3390/ani11061644 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11061644
20 Grondin T.M. & Dewitt S.F. 2010. Normal Hematology of the Horse and Donkey. In: Weiss DJ, Wardrop KJ. (Eds). Schalm’s Veterinary Hematology. 6th edn. London: Wiley-Blackwell, pp.821-828.
21 Harrell J.E., Hahn M.M., Souza S.J.D., Vasicek E.M., Sandala J.L., Gunn J.S. & McLachlan J.M. 2020. Salmonella biofilm formation, chronic infection, and immunity within the intestine and hepatobiliary tract. Front. Cellular Infection and Microbiology. 2(1): 1-20. DOI: 10.3389%2Ffcimb.2020.624622
22 Harvey R.W., Price T.H. & Joynson D.H. 1979. Salmonella isolation from hospital areas. Journal of Hygiene. 83(3): 461-468. DOI: 10.1017%2Fs0022172400026309 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022172400026309
23 Hassel D.M. 2015. Fluid Therapy for Gastrointestinal Diseases. In: Fielding C.L. & Magdesian K.G. (Eds). Equine Fluid Therapy. London: Wiley Blackwell, pp.206-219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118928189.ch16
24 Iacob S. & Iacob D.G. 2019. Infectious threats, the intestinal barrier, and its Trojan horse: dysbiosis. Frontiers in Microbiology. 7(10): 1-11. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01676 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.01676
25 Juffo G.D., Bassuino D.M., Gomes D.C., Wurster F., Pissetti C., Pavarini S.P. & Driemeier D. 2017. Equine salmonellosis in Southern Brazil. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 49: 475-482. DOI: 10.1007/s11250-016-1216-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-016-1216-1
26 Kabir A., Lamichhane B., Habib T., Adams A., El-Sheikh A.H., Slovis N.M., Troedsson M.H.T. & Helmy Y.A. 2024. Antimicrobial Resistance in Equines: A Growing Threat to Horse Health and Beyond - A Comprehensive Review. Antibiotics. 13(8): 713. DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics13080713 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13080713
27 Kaneko J.J., Harvey J.W. & Bruss M.L. 2008. The Erythrocyte: Physiology, Metabolism, and Biochemical Disorders. In: Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. Cambridge: Academic Press, pp. 157-172
28 Kim L.M., Morley P.S., Traub-Dargatz J.L., Salman M.D. & Gentry-Weeks C.R. 2001. Factors associated with Salmonella shedding among equine colic patients at a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.218(5): 740-748. DOI: 10.2460/javma.2001.218.740 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.740
29 Kohnen A.B., Wiedenheft A.M., Traub-Dargatz J.L., Short D.M., Cook K.L., Lantz K., Morningstar-Shaw B., Lawrence J.P., House S., Marshall K.L. & Rao S. 2023. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella and Escherichia coli from equids sampled in the NAHMS 2015–16 equine study and association of management factors with resistance. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 213(1): 105857. DOI:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.105857 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.105857
30 Kopper J.J., Kogan C.J., Cook V.L. & Schoot H.C. 2019. Outcome of horses with enterocolitis receiving oncotic fluid support with either plasma or hetastarch. Canadian Veterinary Journal. 60(11): 1207-1212.
31 Kurowski P.B., Traub-Dargatz J.L., Morley P.S. & Gentryweeks C.R. 2002. Detection of Salmonella spp. in fecal specimens by use of real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. American Journal of Veterinary Research. 9(63): 1-9. DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.2002.63.1265 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.2002.63.1265
32 Leon I.M., Dawhon S.D., Norman D.S., Threadgil D.S., Ohta N., Vinasco J. & Scott H.M. 2018. Serotype diversity and antimicrobial resistance among Salmonella enterica isolates from patients at an equine referral hospital. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 84: 1-5. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.02829-17 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02829-17
33 Madic J., Hajsig D., Sostaric B., Curic S., Seol B., Naglic T. & Cvetnic Z. 1997. An outbreak of abortion in mares associated with Salmonella abortusequi infection. Equine Veterinary Journal. 3: 230-233. DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1997.tb01674.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1997.tb01674.x
34 Magdesian K.G. 2005. Neonatal foal diarrhea. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice. 21: 295-312. DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2005.04.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cveq.2005.04.009
35 Magiorakos A.P., Sirivasan A., Carey R.B., Carmeli Y., Falagas M.E., Giske C.G., Harbarth S., Hindler J.F., Kahlmeter G., Olsson-Lijequist B., Paterson D.L., Rice L.B., Stelling J., Struelens M.J., Vatapoulos A., Weber J.T. & Monnet D.L. 2012. Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clinical Microbiology Infection. 18(3): 268-281. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x
36 Maninshimwe R., Moncada P.M., Bugarel M., Schott H.M. & Loneragan G.H. 2021. Antibiotic resistance among Escherichia coli and Salmonella isolated from dairy cattle feces in Texas. Plos One. 7: 1-10. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0242390 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242390
37 Mendonça F.S., Navarro M.A. & Uzal F.A. 2022. The comparative pathology of enterocolitis caused by Clostridium perfringens type C, Clostridioides difficile, Paeniclostridium sordellii, Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhimurium, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in horses. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic. Investigation. 34: 412-420. DOI: 10.1177/10406387211041091 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387211041091
38 Meuten D. 2012. Laboratory Evaluation and Interpretation of the Urinary System. In: Thrall M.A., Weiser G., Allison R.W. & Campbell T.W. (Eds). Veterinary Hematology and Clinical Chemistry. 2nd edn. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp.355-370.
39 Morse E.V., Myhron E.P. & Greenwood D.E. 1976. Salmonellosis in man and animals’ health problem. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. 11: 755-769. DOI: 10.1080/10934527609385813. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10934527609385813
40 Olivo G., Lucas T.M., Borges A.S., Silva R.O., Lobato F.C., Siqueira A.K., Silva Leite D., Brandão P.E., Gregori F., Oliveira-Filho J.P., Takai S. & Ribeiro M.G. 2016. Enteric Pathogens and Coinfections in Foals with and without Diarrhea. Biomedical Research International. 1: 1-12. DOI: 10.1155/2016/1512690. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/1512690
41 Qamar F.N., Azmatullah A., Kazi A.M., Khan E. & Zaidi A.K.M. 2014. A three-year review of antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi and Paratyphi A in Pakistan. Journal of Infection and Public Health. 8: 981-986. DOI: 10.3855/jidc.3817. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.3817
42 Reche D.V., Potter L., Vaz C.S.L., Pereira D.I.B., Sangioni L.A., Vargas A.C. & Botton S.A. 2016. Antimicrobial Resistance in Nontyphoidal Salmonella Isolated from Human and Poultry-Related Samples in Brazil: 20-Year Meta-Analysis. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease. 14: 116-124. DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2016.2228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/fpd.2016.2228
43 Ribeiro M.G., Fernandes M.C., Paes A.C., Siqueira A.K. & Borges A.S. 2010. Caracterização de sorotipos em linhagens do gênero Salmonella isoladas de diferentes afecções em animais domésticos. Pesquisa Veterinaria Brasileira. 2:155-160. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-736X2010000200010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-736X2010000200010
44 Rubini S., Ravadioli C., Previato S., I’ncau M.D., Tassinari M., Guidi E., Lupi S., Meriald G. & Bergamini M. 2016. Prevalence of Salmonella strains in wild animals from a highly populated area of northeastern Italy. Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità. 52: 277-280. DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2009.00547.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-0813.2009.00547.x
45 Samuels A.N., Kamr A.M., Reed S.M., Slovis N.M., Hostnik L.D., Burns T.A. & Toribio R.E. 2024. Association of the neutrophil‐lymphocyte ratio with outcome in sick hospitalized neonatal foals. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 38(2): 1196-1206. DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16995. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.16995
46 Schaer B.L., Aceto H., Caruso M.A. & Brace M.A. 2012. Identification of Predictors of Salmonella Shedding in Adult Horses Presented for Acute Colic. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 26: 1177-1185. DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.00984.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.00984.x
47 Schott H.C., Ewart S.L., Walker R.D., Dwyner R.M., Dietrich S., Eberhart S.W., Kusey J., Stick J.A. & Derksen F.J. 2001. An outbreak of salmonellosis among horses at a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 218: 1152-1159. DOI: 10.2460/javma.2001.218.1152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.218.1152
48 Shen W., Chen H., Geng J., Wu R.A., Wang X. & Ding T. 2022. Prevalence, serovar distribution, and antibiotic resistance of Salmonella spp. isolated from pork in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 16: 1-11. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109473. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109473
49 Slovis N.M. 2003. Gastrointestinal failure. Clinical Techniques in Equine Practice. 2: 79-96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1534-7516(03)000258
50 Slovis N.M., Elam J., Estrada M. & Leutenegger C.M. 2014. Infectious agents associated with diarrhea in neonatal foals in central Kentucky: A comprehensive molecular study. Equine Veterinary Journal. 46: 311-316. DOI: 10.1111/evj.12119. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/evj.12119
51 Slovis N.M., Elam J., Estrada M., Thao M.F. & Leutenegger C.M. 2010. Comprehensive analysis of infectious agents associated with diarrhea in foals in central Kentucky. American Association of Equine Practitioners Proceedings. Lexington, KY, USA, 56.
52 Spier S.J. 1993. Salmonellosis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice. 9: 385-397. DOI: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30405-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30405-4
53 Tang B., Siddique A., Jia C., Dra A.E., Lin H. & Yue M. 2023. Genome-based risk assessment for foodborne Salmonella enterica from food animals in China: A One Health perspective. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 392: 1-10. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2023.110120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2023.110120
54 Tulukder H., Roky A.S., Debnath K., Sharma B., Ahmed J. & Roy S. 2023. Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance Profile of Salmonella Isolated from Human, Animal and Environment Samples in South Asia: A 10-Year Meta-analysis. Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health. 26: 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44197-023-00160-x
55 Uzal F.A., Arroyo L.G., Navarro M.A., Gomez D.E., Asín J. & Henderson E. 2022. Bacterial and viral enterocolitis in horses: a review. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 34: 354-375. DOI: 10.1177/10406387211057469. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387211057469
56 Ward M.P., Alinovi C.A., Couetil L.L. & Wu C.C. 2005. Evaluation of a PCR to detect Salmonella in fecal samples of horses admitted to a veterinary teaching hospital. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 17: 118-123. DOI: 10.1177/104063870501700204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/104063870501700204
57 Weese J.S., Baird J.D., Poppe C. & Archambault M. 2001. Emergence of Salmonella Typhimurium definitive type 104 (DT104) as an important cause of salmonellosis in horses in Ontario. Canadian Veterinary Journal. 42: 788-792.
58 Wen S.C., Best E., & Nourse C. 2017. Nontyphoidal Salmonella infections in children: Review of literature and recommendations for management. Journal of Pediatrics and Child Health. 53: 936-941. DOI: 10.1111/jpc.13585. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.13585
59 Wright J.G., Tengelsen L.A., Smith K.E., Bender J.B., Frank R.K., Grendon J.H., Rice D.H., Thiessen A.M.B., Gilbertson C.J., Sivapalasingam S., Barrett T.J., Besser T.E., Hancock D.D. & Angulo F.J. 2005. Multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium in four animal facilities. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11: 1235-1241. DOI: 10.3201/eid1108.050111. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1108.050111
60 Zakia L.S., Arroyo L.G., Gomez D.E., Boerlin P., Surette M.G. & Lille B.N. 2023. Postmortem examination of equids >1-year-old with enterotyphlocolitis in Ontario: a retrospective descriptive study. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 35(4): 350-354. DOI: 10.1177/1040638723117622. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387231176229
Additional Files
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Neri Hellen Vieira da Cunha, Fabrício Cerri, Roberta Martins Basso, Thayná Oliveira da Silva, Renée Laufer-Amorim, Márcio García Ribeiro, Luiza Stachewski Zakia, Wanderson Adriano Biscola Pereira, José Paes Oliveira-Filho, Alexandre Secorun Borges, Rogério Martins Amorim
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This journal provides open access to all of its content on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. Such access is associated with increased readership and increased citation of an author's work. For more information on this approach, see the Public Knowledge Project and Directory of Open Access Journals.
We define open access journals as journals that use a funding model that does not charge readers or their institutions for access. From the BOAI definition of "open access" we take the right of users to "read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles" as mandatory for a journal to be included in the directory.
La Red y Portal Iberoamericano de Revistas Científicas de Veterinaria de Libre Acceso reúne a las principales publicaciones científicas editadas en España, Portugal, Latino América y otros países del ámbito latino
