Avian Mycobacteriosis in a Rescued Harpy Eagle from Darien Forest, Panama

Authors

  • Claudia del Carmén Rengifo-Herrera Asociación Panamericana para la Conservación (APPC), Gamboa, Panama City
  • Julio César Reyes Asociación Panamericana para la Conservación (APPC), Gamboa, Panama City
  • Angie Marie Magaña Asociación Panamericana para la Conservación (APPC), Gamboa, Panama City
  • Fermín Acosta Asociación Panamericana para la Conservación (APPC), Gamboa, Panama City
  • Julia Ponder Asociación Panamericana para la Conservación (APPC), Gamboa, Panama City
  • Amador Goodridge Asociación Panamericana para la Conservación (APPC), Gamboa, Panama City

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.96502

Abstract

Background: The Harpy eagle (Harpia harpyia) is the largest raptor in the Neotropical region, distributed in low densities within primary forest habitats from southern Mexico to east-central Brazil, including Central America and Panama. Although locally extinct due to habitat degradation, human poaching and reduction of tropical forests in recent decades, some remnant populations are known to be small and isolated. Thus, information on its ecology, including infectious diseases, is critical for conservation efforts and management of populations of this emblematic species in the wild. Avian Mycobacteriosis (AM) is a chronic disease affecting a wide range of birds and mammals and clinical cases have been sporadically reported, although in harpy eagles, has not been documented. In addition, scant information exists on pathologies affecting raptors, therefore, this report expands the knowledge on infectious diseases affecting wild birds. This study describes the first case of AM in an immature harpy eagle rescued from Darien gap and presents details of the clinical manifestation of the disease and its histological findings.

Case: An immature harpy eagle was presented to a rescue center after being confiscated by Ministry of Environment from a local farm in a remote region of Eastern Panama, in the Darien gap. The raptor had a history of having been kept in captivity for approximately five weeks, cohabiting with backyard poultry and fed corn, raw duck and chicken provided by farm owners. Stagnant water was offered for drinking. The harpy eagle arrived to the facility very lethargic and emaciated. Physical examination revealed damaged plumage, poor body condition and dyspnea. Complete blood count revealed anemia and leukocytosis based on lymphocytosis and eosinophilia. Biochemical profile evidenced an increased level of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), phosphorus and total plasma protein. Most remarkable radiographic findings were splenomegaly, hepatomegaly and increased opacity in kidneys, intestines, and aerial sacs. None of the other diagnostic tests performed were conclusive, like tracheal, esophageal and cloacal cultures for fungal infection and fecal exam. After one week of treatment, it showed a remarkable recovery, but at the end of the second week, declined dramatically, dying in the third week of treatment. Post-mortem examination revealed the presence of diffuse granulomas in multiple organs. Histologic examination with gram and Ziehl Neelsen staining revealed the presence of gram-positive and acid-fast bacteria, compatible with Mycobacterium-like bacilli. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the hsp65, digested with BstEII and HaEIII restriction enzymes confirmed the presence Mycobacterium avium complex in tissues samples.

Discussion: This is the first report of AM in a harpy eagle, presenting an extreme emaciation with dyspnea, abnormalities in spleen, liver and air sacs. Biochemical and hematological parameters revealed alterations consistent with infection and organ malfunctions in liver, but Mycobacteriosis was not suspected initially and it was necessary to support the diagnosis with histopathological studies and DNA amplification for a proper identification of the disease. This allowed us to confirm that ante-mortem clinical diagnosis of Avian Mycobacteriosis can be challenging, especially in birds who usually show non-specific signs of the disease and external lesions are not commonly observed. Further studies are requiring to determine the characteristics and clinical signs of this disease in this and other raptors. Also, to determine the source of infection affecting raptors and other protected species in the Neotropical region, especially for diseases with relevance in the conservation of birds and animal health control.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Banhos A., Hrbek T., Sanaiotti T.M. & Farias I.P. 2016. Reduction of genetic diversity of the Harpy Eagle in Brazilian tropical forests. PLoS One 11(1): 1-12.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. (CITES). Checklist of CITES Species. Available in <https://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php>. [Accessed online April 2019].

Dahlhausen B., Tovar D.S. & Saggese M.D. 2012. Diagnosis of mycobacterial infections in the exotic pet patient with emphasis on birds. Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice. 15(1): 71-83 .

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2014. State of the World’s Forests. Enhancing the socioeconomic benefits from forests. Rome: FAO, 118p.

Harrison G.J. & Ligthfoot T. 2005. Clinical Avian Medicine. v. 1 & 2. Palm Beach: Editorial Spix Publishing, 1008p.

Heatley J.J., Mitchell M.M., Roy A., Cho D.Y., Williams D.L. & Tully T.N. 2007. Disseminated mycobacteriosis in a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery. 21(3): 201-209.

Hoenerhoff M., Kiupel M., Sikarskie J., Bolin C., Simmons H. & Fitzgerald S. 2004. Mycobacteriosis in an American bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Avian Diseases. 48(2): 437-441.

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Available in <https://www.iucnredlist.org>. [Accessed online April 2019].

Kriz P., Kaevska M., Bartejsova I. & Pavlik I. 2013. Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium Found in Raptors Exposed to Infected Domestic Fowl. Avian Diseases. 57(3): 688-692.

Leão S.C., Briones M.R.S., Sircili M.P., Balian S.C., Mores N. & Ferreira-Neto J.S. 1999. Identification of two novel Mycobacterium avium allelic variants in pig and human isolates from Brazil by PCR-restriction enzyme analysis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 37(8):2592-2597.

Lerner H.R.L., Johnson J.A., Lindsay A.R., Kiff L.F. & Mindell D.P. 2009. It’s not too late for the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja): High levels of genetic diversity and differentiation can fuel conservation programs. PLoS One. 4(10): 1-10.

Matos R. 2008. Adrenal Steroid Metabolism in Birds: Anatomy, Physiology, and Clinical Considerations. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. 11(1): 35-57.

Millán J., Negre N., Castellanos E., de Juan L., Mateos A., Parpal L. & Aranaz A. 2010. Avian mycobacteriosis in free-living raptors in Majorca Island, Spain. Avian Pathology. 39(1): 1-6.

Oliveira M.J., Nascimento I.A., Ribeiro V.O, Cortes L.A., Fernandes R.D., Santos L.C., Moraes W. & Cubas Z.S. 2014. Haematological values for captive harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja). Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira. 34(8): 805-809.

Parvandar-Asadollahi K., Mosavari N. & Mayahi M. 2015. Genotyping of Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium isolates from naturally infected lofts of domestic pigeons in ahvaz by IS901 RFLP. Iranian Journal of Microbiology. 7(5): 260-264.

Pollock C. 2012. Body condition scoring in birds. LafeberVet Website. Available in <https://lafeber.com/vet/es/indice-de-condicion-corporal-en-las aves/#Evaluando_la_condicion_corporal_en_las_aves_adultas>. [Accessed online in March 2019].

Rónai Z., Csivincsik Á. & Dán Á. 2015. Molecular identification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. silvaticum by duplex high-resolution melt analysis and subspecies-specific real-time PCR. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 53(5): 1582-1587.

Rosas S., Bravo J., Gonzalez F., Moreno N., Sanchez J., Gavilan R.G. & Goodridge A. 2013. High clustering rates of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis genotypes in Panama. BMC Infectious Diseases. 13: 442.

Sadar M.J., McRuer D., Hawkins M.G. & Armién A.G. 2015. Multifocal Respiratory and Vertebral Mycobacteriosis in a Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 46(1): 150-154.

Shankar B.P. 2008. Common Respiratory Diseases of Poultry. Veterinary World. 1(7): 217-219.

Shivaprasad H.L. & Palmieri C. 2012. Pathology of Mycobacteriosis in Birds. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. 15: 41-55.

Silva C.F., Ueki S.Y.M., Geiger D.D.C.P. & Leão S.C. 2001. hsp65 PCR-restriction enzyme analysis (PRA) for identification of mycobacteria in the clinical laboratory. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo. 43(1): 25-28.

Telenti A., Marchesi F., Balz M., Bally F., Bottger E. & Thomas B. 1993. Rapid identification of mycobacteria to the species level by polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzyme analysis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 31(2): 175-178.

Turenne C.Y., Semret M., Cousins D.V., Collins D.M. & Behr M.A. 2006. Sequencing of hsp65 Distinguishes among Subsets of the Mycobacterium avium Complex. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 44(2): 433-440.

World Animal Health (OIE). 2014. Avian Tuberculosis. OIE Terrestrial Manual. Paris: OIE, pp.111.

Published

2019-01-01

How to Cite

Rengifo-Herrera, C. del C., Reyes, J. C., Magaña, A. M., Acosta, F., Ponder, J., & Goodridge, A. (2019). Avian Mycobacteriosis in a Rescued Harpy Eagle from Darien Forest, Panama. Acta Scientiae Veterinariae, 47. https://doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.96502